The system that monitors power train gears (engine, transmission, drive shafts, differentials, etc) and make the gears to work together in order to keep vehicle moving efficiently is called Power Train Control Module, abbreviated as PCM.

If all gears are working properly then you improve the car to better shape but if any one gear starts to show problems then your vehicle will bear along with your pocket.

Below are the functions performed by PCM:

PCM acknowledges the input given by different engine sensors so that computation of fuel flow rate can be made. It provides correct amount of fuel flow rate to sustain an agreed fuel/air ratio right through the whole engine operational rate.

Secondly, PCM gives directions to fuel injectors so that injectors gauge the correct quantity of fuel.

Get the hint that when power train shows to have problems, its right time to substitute the PCM module in your car. In maintain a vehicle in good position, problems in PCM cannot be ignored. Don’t get worried that from where you will find another module.

Instrument Cluster Store is the right choice to find huge range of high quality, pre owned instrument clusters, and engine computers. Here, engine computers are available for every size and model. Replace a PCM when it first shows problem or PCM can affect your vehicle’s overall efficiency badly.

This shop had many distinct electronically parts that look like a personal computer more than a vehicle. Every vehicle manufactured from starting of 1990’s till present have small gear known as power train control module. This gear controls parts of vehicles and runs tests on them electronically.

Function

Now we should know how PCM module looks like so that we can identify it easily. This module is a printed circuit board resided in heavy duty case that can survive through the severest temperatures which are usually experienced within the vehicle’s engine.

The module keeps sending the electronic signals to all the gears of engine and keeps testing the temperature and airflow around them. It does this to check if operations are carried out properly or not. If some gear does not work properly then module switches on the check engine light on vehicle’s dashboard.

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Features

The module scans the camshaft, coolant levels, crankshaft, ignition and valve timing, air intake and the turbocharger gears in a car. It automatically normalizes the ratio of air to fuel used in engine. Besides, it also controls the idle speed so that vehicle keeps operating at highest performance level.

The module works in combination with catalytic converter to lessen the amount of pollutants produced from engine’s exhaust and retain the vehicle speed when feature namely cruise control is switched on.

Benefits

A special diagnostic code is created by PCM. This code is based on vehicle’s gear which is not working. This not working properly gear is then read by electronic diagnostic tool used by mechanics.

Readin a code is easier way to find out the problem in vehicle than to replace the piece. Another bonus benefit is that when new gear is added for purpose of maximizing efficiency and performance, some modules can be programmed again.

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Types

Even though all the connectors are resided at same place i.e. beneath the dashboard on driver’s side, different models of cars manufactured in different years might have different and separate kinds of connectors to plug into a diagnostic reading tool. Memory of PCM to save the previous diagnostic codes can also differ.

Considerations

PCM in cold temperature carries out those set of directions that are already determined. These directions are carried out till engine comes back to normal temperature range. After engine comes back to normal temperature range, module again starts operating normally.

Another important thing to remember is that module doesn’t work if battery is disconnected. If battery remains detached for more than ten minutes, all the codes are automatically deleted from memory of module.

There is no code to give us hint when module is facing problem and not working properly. The only hint of failure in operating is that it starts to generate codes for gears that are faulty.

Following are the functions that PCM performs in relation to OBD II Diagnostics:

• PCM executes micro processor based on self diagnostics to make sure correct operations of PCM are carrying out and that OBD II diagnostic data in memory is storing properly.

• It carries out on-board diagnostics instantaneously and aware the driver by revealing MIL when there is an error.

• It executes power train control functions to lessen the emissions and assemble the OBD II policy when open loop functions are carried out at starting time.

• It executes power train control functions to lessen the emissions and assemble the OBD II policy when closed loop is in control at normal operations.

• It executes microprocessor based self diagnostics to make sure the proper operation of PCM and OBD II diagnostic data in memory is safely storing.

Below are the self diagnostics carried out by PCM:

PCM validates the checksum of program memory in ROM along with task and right adaptation.

It executes read and write test of RAM cells so that error free memory is identified.

It carries out operations in CPU, peripheral devices to validate the proper functions of processor. A/D convertors, watchdog timers, and registers are including.

It checks the stored vehicle data and validate that data is not tainted and is in limits of vehicle operations.

It carries out on board diagnostics at correct time and alerts the driver by revealing the MIL when there is an error. This is done by combining diagnostics with vehicle control functions.

The diagnostics are rated according to priority levels between 1-8 or 9 scale. The utmost priority tests are carried out in every 1 millisecond. The next priority level tests are carried out in every 5 milliseconds, 10 milliseconds, 20 milliseconds, 50 milliseconds, 100 milliseconds, 200 milliseconds, 500 milliseconds, and 1 second.

How to confirm if priority level tests are highest? So the highest priority level tests are those that effect safety and emissions to a high degree according to OBD II policies. Oxygen sensor and check on fuel trims during closed loop operations of vehicles are including.

The next priority test level is check on interrupt timers and watchdog timers. The next priority tests are sensors which includes EGO sensor, Throttle position sensor, Misfire detection, MAP sensor, Engine RPM sensor, MAF sensor, Crankshaft position sensor, and Engine coolant sensor.

The more next priority level tests are EGR intrusive tests, Catalytic converter’s secondary air, and canister purge, fuel level sensor, pedal actuator, and ignition timer. And the next priority checks are self tests at particular periods.

PCM executes on board diagnostics instantaneously. PCM is interrupted by instantaneous time’s scheduler during the performance of normal vehicle control operations. This is the time period when PCM saves current state of vehicle and carries out the diagnostics.

The whole process is completed in 100 microseconds. After this PCM comes back to normal vehicle control functions. For every priority level test, same procedure is repeated. PCM gives 15-45% of its time to diagnostics and rest of the time n performing and carrying out normal vehicle control functions.

The work of PCM is to keep an eye on air/fuel mixture and to fine-tune it accordingly. PCM also employs the catalytic convertor to lessen the pollution generated from engine. Operations are carried out in two modes.

First one is a closed loop. In closed loop, computer takes the complete charge of an operating system.

Second mode is an open loop. This mode is exercised when engine is cold. This mode functions on present program. For going in closed loop, engine has to be at operating temperature.

The PCM scrutinizes the input and yields indications generated by different sensors of system. Then system is altered by PCM accordingly. Oxygen sensor, coolant sensor, mass air flow sensor, air intake sensor, crankshaft angle sensor, throttle position sensor, camshaft angle sensor and knock sensor are including.

Operation program of a PCM is made of information cells which embrace the cipher for proper engine operations. Malfunction Inductor Lamp (MIL) or Check Engine Light is switched on when information is out of the cell parameters premises.

When check engine light and service engine soon light is glowed, it means the PCM has saved a diagnostic trouble code. In simple language it means that some problem in system has been diagnosed by computer system. When trouble code light is glowed, instantly get the hint that vehicle has taken a step in limp mode i.e. now vehicle is running on such a program which results weak mileage and more emissions. Trouble code is a feasible gadget to use.

In vehicles from 1996 till present modern; “D” plug in connector is used. This connector is attached to the code reader. The connector is resided in driver’s compartment. After the code reader is attached-in, you can regain the trouble codes laid up in memory of engine computer. These codes are also used by dealers and repairers to replace sensor and clean codes.

The PCM gives five volt current to most of the sensors in order to make monitoring circuits work. Radiators cooling fan, air pump, fuel pump, EVAP system are some of the systems monitored by PCM. For more facility, communication standards have also been instituted in OBD II operating system.

Controller area networking abbreviated as CAN is the most recognized communication standard because of its amazing speed of 500 plus Kbps. Communication through buses is more preferred because in case of any error, it is accounted individually in diagnostic tool.

Manufacturers know diverse trouble code errors among which some are very basic. Multiplexing technique is used for writing. This is the technique where each module has its own writing system that unites the production and participation of the module.

PCM acts as a mind of engine computer system and so when mind does not function properly, other gears automatically starts showing problems. Engine and microprocessor controls which embrace charging system, transmission, different emission controls, and communication with other control modules. Once the problem if found out, then PCM can be replace. Condition of diagnosis is vital.

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OBD II diagnostic trouble codes embraces:

P0600 – Serial Communication Link

P0601 – Internal Control Module Memory Check Sum Error

P0602 – Control Module Programming Error

P0603 – Internal Control Module Keep Alive Memory (KAM) Error

P0604 – Internal Control Module Random Access Memory (RAM) Error

P0605 – Internal Control Module Read Only Memory (ROM) Error

P0606 – ECM/PCM Processor

P0607 – Control Module Performance

P0608 – Control Module VSS Output ‘A’

P0609 – Control Module VSS Output ‘B’

P0610 – Control Module Vehicle Options Error

If one or more of these codes occurs while diagnosing the actual problem, instantaneously get the hint that PCM needs to be replaced. More diagnosis is definitely required to make sure if PCM is the problem. OEM diagnostic chart is the chart where information about other tests can be found out.

Normally what is done is PCM is given some input to see if it outputs accurate reaction. Obviously wrong answer means PCM is the problem and needs replacement.

Many specialized professionals think computers are guilty if engine is not functioning properly. In this situation, they emphasize on changing parts and gears of vehicle and they don’t pay attention on PCM.

So when vehicle comes back home, it still shows the same problem and fails to run properly. The reason is root of the failure is still there and unless root is not treated, vehicle would not function properly. More pennies are also used in this misunderstanding of what actually is problem.

Now a day, many PCMs are given back on basis of warranties. The reason of returning PCM is that because PCM does not fix the problem or engine does not function as it is supposed to function.

Among returned PCMs, many PCMs do not have any problem at all. What actual problem is that people don’t understand what PCM is right for their vehicle and they keep changing computer systems to fix the problem.

Many times PCM does not work properly because of minor reasons like someone might have twisted the wires or has given too much voltage to PCM or other. In this case, computer is the one that needs to be checked up. Sadly, to check computer system in ordinary stores is not a correct option.

To check the problem in PCM and computer system, PCM needs to be somewhere where inputs and outputs can be checked feasibly. For this checking up, PCM had to go to supplier. Supplier then runs a set of test on it again. If no error is found out, PCM is again packed to sell.

Be cautious when buying PCM because many retailers have rule of no returns and refunds on electrical appliances.

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Many times PCM fails to work properly are because of couple of reasons.

1. Voltage overload

2. Environmental factors

Voltage overload can be because of short solenoid or actuator circuit. If short solenoid or actuator is not found and mended then overload in voltage can harm the replacement PCM.

Environmental factors may include corrosion, thermal stress, and vibration. Not only can these but water too be the cause. Water is harmful and dangerous to electrical appliances and so it is vital to avoid water as much as possible.

The reason of avoiding water is that if it goes in the interior of the PCM, then short circuit can occur and oxidization can harm the connections very badly.

Many manufacturers don’t even touch the PCM that has come out of flood. Other than water, thermal stress and vibration are the factors that are repairable or replaceable. Thermal stress and vibration gives birth to micro cracks with in circuit board and good news is that these micro cracks are repairable as this is more linked with circuit design than operational factors in vehicle.

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Second step is taken when the action of turning key in ignition button closes the circuit by letting electrical current flow from you vehicle’s battery to it starter.

During this process, current is passed through an apparatus known as starter solenoid. The work of solenoid is to surpass the current and activate the starter gears making link with flywheel.

Adjustment or replacement is not required unless it ruptures. To maintain it, take the book out of your vehicle and track the way of electric current in different parts of system. You even can look at the chapter in book mentioning about how to open hood.

Initially vehicle is perplexing but once you go through the book, you will be amazed on how things are simple that looked confusing earlier.

When you start outlining the wiring through the starting system, you would definitely come across the areas and parts which are not discussed yet.

For example solenoid: this is one of those parts which don’t require attention unless they start causing problems in functioning. When you notice problems, directly go to professional so that a professional can replace it or adjust it. Don’t try to do it by yourself. Now we are going to discuss some important points regarding starting system. Read them thoroughly.

Firstly we will talk about battery. Take battery as a huge box that is placed beneath the hood. Battery is filling with acid, distilled water, and a set of plates joint into cells. Electric currents are fabricated from it to start the automobile, turn the lights on, and to power the ignition system.

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The battery is also responsible for steadying the voltage in the electrical system and for providing current whenever needed by electrical. Two huge metal terminals are attached on top or side of the box; positive and negative. It’s very easy to identify which one is positive and which one is negative.

Positive one is bigger and has either a “+”, or “POS”, or “POSIIVE” mentioned on it. Likewise, negative terminal has “-_”, or “NEG “or “NEGATIVE” written on it. Many vehicles also had a red cap on the positive terminal and black on negative terminal.

You also must have noticed this in your vehicles that when battery is dead and you take a look of clamps on the cable to start the battery again, two wires are red and black in color so that you identify them easily and match them to the terminals. The book we mentioned above also has a chapter on how to start a dead battery again.

In many vehicles, negative terminal’s wire is connected to the frame of the car so that vehicle can be grounded. On the other hand, positive terminal is used for starters, ignition, etc. now days, modern batteries are not need to be maintained a lot.

But do remember battery doesn’t require much attention but deposits are formed in terminals which can serve as hurdle in current flow. The book also has a chapter on how battery is checked and deposits are removed.

Current makes it way to the starter after it is sent by battery to the solenoid. The apparatus that forces engine turnover is called the starter. Starter is an electrical motor that has a gear and is known as starter drive at one end.

This drive connects a ring gear on a fly wheel which is secured on the back of engine crankshaft. Starter drive is slide down in shaft and connects ring gear after key is turned in ignition. Flywheel is then pinned starting the crankshaft and piston can go up and down.

The spark is then fired and engine starts working. Started has completed its responsibility when engine starts running. Let go off the key after engine has started. Key stay at “ON” position for the entire time engine is running.

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The starter drives also disconnects itself from the flywheel and engine continues operating on fuel and Air Theater forced in cylinders. Don’t be worried if you hear some noise when engine is running.

The noise is the clutch in starter drive that helps the engine to work faster than the starter. But remember the noise comes only when key is held in “START” position. The one way clutch safeguards starter damage when engine is running. But this is not very preferable to maintain the key in start position for more than ten seconds when engine is running.

If your car fails to start then don’t worry. Just give a chance to starter to calm down for couple of minutes and then try to start again. If starter is not calmed down then starter can be agitated and can be harmed. So don’t keep the key in start position or you will end up with spoiled starter and flywheel ring gear.

The Charging System

Engine in ran at sound thunder if you have hybrid or electric vehicle abbreviated EV. When automobile is functioned only on electric motor, these electric vehicles are noiseless and hybrids too are noiseless. The thunder in conventional area of car is caused because when piston in cylinder starts to move, engine also starts to run on regular diet of fuel and air.

Electric current is discontinued from flowing when key is let go and ignition switch changes its position from start to on. This process does not stop charging system flow and reaming electrical system.

The alternator

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Alternator is the device that provides electric current to the engine. The belt is driven by running engine enabling the alternator. You must be thinking how this process is taken.

First of all, electricity taken from battery is replaced by an alternator. Alternator then substitute the fluid provided from battery.

To force different gadgets, alternator generates alternating current abbreviated as AC. This AC is transformed to Direct current abbreviated as DC. Alternators are sometime also considered as generators. Old vehicle used to have generators. DC was produced from generated and was then passed further.

Now generators are responsible for producing electric current but they are not used in automobiles anymore. Now alternator foes the job of generating electric currents in automobiles but the term generating is now used as charging. If alternator shows problems in function properly then dashboard idiot lights are automatically turned on in many vehicles.

Some automobiles also have voltmeters that measure if the alternator is charging correctly or not. If the engine is running with all frills off, then system voltage should be no less or more than 13.5 to 14.5 volts. If volts are not in the range mentioned, then charging system definitely has some flaws. Alternator is also responsible to start the radio, headlights, etc.

The voltage regulator

The apparatus that monitors the alternator is called voltage regulator. In ancient cars, voltage regulator is small box placed somewhere in the hood. In now a day automobiles, this box is placed within the alternator or ECU. As voltage regulator is responsible for alternator so if it fails, alternator automatically becomes toothless.

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Aim of this charging system is to manage the charge in battery of vehicle and to supply the electrical energy with main source so that engine can get started properly.

In case your vehicle’s charging system stops operating then charge in battery would become useless and you will be left with dead battery.

In case your vehicle has weak battery with alternator not working then it means that vehicle’s engine does not have enough electrical currents to fire the glow in plugs and as a result your vehicle’s engine will stop working.

If someday you find your battery dead and not working then don’t interpret this as if there something wrong with it. The reason behind this can be that charge is exhausted. Don’t panic, just recharge your battery charger. Another way to start the battery is that starting running the engine; by running the engine, alternator itself will charge the battery.

To maintain the charging voltage fabricated by the alternators between 13.5 to 14.5 volts. This maintenance is done by Voltage Regulator and safeguards electrical gears in vehicle.

Another attractive feature of this regulator is that it can give hints to driver of the vehicle when something wrong is taking place in charging system. This can be a dash mounted voltmeter, an ammeter, or waning lamp. Warning lamp is marked as Gen, Bat, and Alt. the lamps glows when engine is in motion and problem is occurring in charging system. The cause of the problem can be an alternator which has stopped functioning. Broken alternator drive belt is most general reason.

Belt is what drives alternator and is motorized by the rotation of engine. The belt has responsibility of different gears like water pump, power steering, air conditioning compressor. Procedure applied here is that belt goes around a pulley that is associated to the front engine’s crankshaft.

There are more belts that one in some engines and there are more task other than driving the gears. Gears are distributed among belts. Fan Belt, Alternator Belt, Drive Belt, Power Steering Belt, A/C Belt, etc are some of the belts.

In engines where there are different belts and different belts are responsible for different gears; then fine-tuning at regular interval are needed to sustain the proper belt tension.

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There is one exception i.e.: if some engine is using serpentine belt then there is a spring loaded belt that gives tension to maintain the tension in belt. In this belt no fine-tuning are needed. This serpentine belt can last for almost 30,000 miles. Go through manual of car’s owner to know when to replace it.

Voltage and amperage are used to measure alternator output. You should know the concept of resistance in order to understand concept of voltage and amperage. Resistance is measured in ohms.

To understand the concept of resistance, simply evaluate the electricity speed to the running water’s. Water always is flown through a pipe having specific pressure. The dimension of pipe informs of resistance that is required for flowing of water. Small pipe is the requirement for more resistance.

Force in the pipe can be increased in order to get more water flow. If you want less pressure in the pipe then you can use pipe of large size. Pressure should limited or pipe can rupture with more pressure. Now you must be thinking how this whole water flow concept is related in any way to electricity.

Voltage is just similar to the pressure of water. Volume of water flowing through is called amperage where as size of the wire passing the current is known as resistance. Just like too much pressure can rupture the pipe, too much voltage can also harm the electrical gears like light bulbs or computer circuits.

Therefore, voltage amount should also be restricted. This restriction is applied by voltage regulator. Now you see the link between voltage and water pressure. High water pressure can fracture things and high voltage can blaze things.

• Now let’s see how voltage works in vehicles. Voltage that is produced from the battery starts the vehicle only when ignition toggle is turned on. What happens next is voltage is transfer through the starter and vehicle starts running by causing a restricted detonation in the engine combustion chamber.

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Powering the Alternator

• After the car is converted in motion mode, spinning rotor is forced to turn within the alternator by drive belt. Spinning rotor is responsible for producing power by acting as a generator. The power then starts to travel from the alternator to the battery. It takes the way of voltage regulator.

Activating the Voltage Regulator

• Voltage regulator then helps electricity to pass by turning alternator on and off relying on voltage level. Circuit is to the alternator by voltage sensor of a regulator if voltage in battery in under 13.5 volts. By doing this, electrical current passes to the field terminal of an alternator resulting it to switch on and transport charge to the battery.

Electromechanical gears are used in some regulators which results physical break in the circuit so that power flow can be lessen or stop. Automobiles that are being in used for some time usually have these electromechanical gears.

Controlling the Voltage Using the Regulator

• Regulator sensors turn off the current flow to the alternator if voltage in battery is reached to 14.5 volts. This procedure restricts transporting electricity to the battery. By this step, batter doesn’t get overcharged and chance of ignition and blazing out are also reduced.

Test your voltage regulator

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• Now what you need to do is start a car and ensure that vehicle is in square with parking brake applied. Next, find the battery in hood. Now position your black meter lead on the negative battery terminal and red meter lead on positive battery terminal. Then turn the meter on by placing the selector switch to VDC position at 20 voltage range.

It must be shown almost 14 volts on display. Get the hint that battery is either dying or is already dead if volts are less than 14 volts. In this situation, alternator also does not work properly which doesn’t give chance batter to charge up.

Next, if voltage is more that 14 volts then this means that voltage regulator needs replacement or adjustment. Voltage regulator in new cars is part of main alternator.

If you observe the adjustment in voltage regulator then don’t worry. There are ways to adjust it. But adjustment can’t be done in all models but some models. What you need to do is go through repair manual of your automobile. There must be procedures for your type regulators in there.

Try to find an adjustment screw/bolt under the regulator cover and with the voltmeter connector if adjustment procedure is not mentioned in manual. Then adjust the bolt until 14 volts range is attained. As it is mentioned above that not all models regulators can be adjusted so research properly on your regulator.

There are other reasons to have low voltage in battery. Look for them closely and carefully so that tightness and corrosion is provided in correct quantity because this is what will result more resistance in charging circuit. Alternator might not be strong enough to defeat it.

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Many different works and functions of a vehicle are performed by ‘the power train control module’. Information is acknowledged by the module from different engine sensors and then module calculates the fuel flow rate necessary for protection of right quantity of air or fuel ratio during operational range.

PCM, on the basis of information received earlier, produces output indications so that communication, actuators and solenoids are controlled and scrutinized carefully.

Another work that is done by PCM is that it sends commands to fuel injectors so that accurate and right amount of fuel is gauged. Module also has skills to adjust altitudes when car is in driving mode.

Below are the indications caused by open circuit, dead-shorts to ground, short to power or excessive resistance in the power and ground circuits; data line communication malfunctions and component failure.

The OBD II Management System (EMS) computer is a single device having different solid-state components or multi micro computers in it. The work of this device is to monitor the EMS performance and to perform OBD II diagnostic routines. Two parts of OBD II EMS computer work concurrently.

Architecture and structure of software is designed in a way that permits OBD II EMS computer to become accustomed of operating strategies applied in different situations in order to optimize the EMS. EMS federal guidelines also wants EMS OBD II computer to monitor the operating conditions of EMS at regular intervals.

EMS is also responsible to file any complain of component failure. Component or system failure can result in exceeding of emissions in tailpipe. Exceeding can go 1.5 times the federal test process.

The purpose to invent and design OBD II EMS computer is to carry out the power train system management and to monitor. Designs and strategies can be different but guidelines are almost same to design computers.

Microprocessors are built with a complicated array of digital routes (circuits). 250,000 logic circuits are present in single microprocessor. Logic circuits are resided in a silicon integrated circuit abbreviated as IC. It has a district of almost ¼ inch square. Microprocessor needs instructions and orders to perform any activity and task. These directions are already programmed in computer.

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IC Micro Processor

The microprocessor responsible for maintenance of control in computer is called central processing unit abbreviated as CPU. All the computation and logic decisions are performed and taken by CPU. Directions are already preprogrammed in memory called ‘read-only memory’ abbreviated as ROM. These directions that are preprogrammed cannot be altered or modified by specialized professional.

Directions are combination of some instructions arranged in such a manner that can easily achieve some task. Directions are also known as program. Every direction and instruction is allocated in particular venue inside memory.

The information about the location where instructions are stored is maintained in CPU. CPU finds the location of required information and gets the data from memory site. But the original information is not changed is memory.

ACCURATE POWERTRAIN CONTROL MODULE IDENTIFICATION

There are many types of PCMs. Therefore, to identify correct PCM and to place it correctly is very important. Identification of correct PCM can be perplexing sometimes as many PCMs do not vary in their looks i.e. same box size and connectors. But from inside they are differently wired.

Wrong PCM can affect the running of vehicle. Replacement should also be exact. Close to correct replacement is very different from correctly replaced.

OEM part number on the PCM, other than vehicle year, make, model, and engine size, is needed to identify correct PCM. So always remember to check the OEM number on the PCM with the one in supplier’s cross reference index.

To make the vehicle work, instructions and directions are stored in calibration chip and PROM. This is the reason that calibration chip and PROM doesn’t come along with replacement PCM. Flash memory or “EEPROMs” (Electronically Erasable Program Read Only Memory) are used in now a day vehicles. Replacement PROM can be reprogrammed after fitting if it is not programmed correctly.

But the skill to reprogram is not offered to the aftermarket. The car makers are afraid that aftermarket technicians would mess with calibration of their involved computers causing the production to alter and affect the performance.

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REMAIN POWERTRAIN CONTROL MODULES

Power train control modules can cost you a lot to replace. This is why the aftermarket replacement PCMs are remanufactured elements. PCM is reconstructed in different manner than an alternator or water pump. Reconstructing the PCM< can result in testing the power train control model, solitude and refurbishing founded faults. Next is again retesting the power train control model.

Reconstructed PCMs are sold either on basis of exchange or on basis of custom rebuild. Old PCM can be sent to remanufacturer for fixing if some PCM is out of stock. What difficult is to find the remanufacturer who would be able to fix the power train control module.

It is not necessary that all PCMs are fixable. Remanufacturers will not fix the PCM which has come from swamped vehicle.

PCM REPLACEMENT TIPS

Replacement of PCM only required changing of boxes. To locate the PCM can be tough as in some vehicles it is place beneath other gears in instrumental panel, climate control system or console. Some are also placed below the seat.

Disconnect the battery before removing the old PCM and installing new one. Reconnect the battery after new PCM has been installed. The work does not end here. Now many PCM might need to go through relearning phase after the installation or disconnection from battery.

In some appliances, there might be detailed relearning procedures for setting up the idle speed and other parameters important for operation. In others, to adjust the computer, short test drive can be enough. What specific vehicle requires can be found in service manual of vehicle.

On other side, power train control module will keep learning and adjusting to the fuel mixtures as vehicles gather miles. In some vehicles, transmission can also be controlled by PCM and so some time can be taken to relearn the driver’s behavior.

Vehicle still is suffering from some problem if MIL i.e. malfunction indicator lamp or check engine lights gets on after replacement of PCM. Fault codes can be the problem here. If fault codes are the cause, then more analysis is required to identify the exact problem and to fix the problem. PCM won’t work properly unless the root cause has been treated.

In case engine control system is not moving in closed loop, then probability is that coolant sensor or oxygen sensor is not functioning appropriately.

Retarded spark timings can be because of defective MAP sensor, poor adjustment of throttle position sensor, or super sensitive knock sensor. If nothing is functioning as it is supposed to function, then fragile alternator or poor battery connections can be cause here.

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There must be a daily refilling of water in car batteries because there is a specific amount of water loss, whenever there is an electrolysis process under every charging cycle.

This water loss can be reduced by the regular change of the alloying element of calcium which is the main feature to reduce the water loss.

Still there is a thing which can lose water and that is the overcharging of batteries. The new designs of batteries are coming with the features of reduced water loss.

These batteries need not to maintain too much and they may not require the use of caps to add water to the cells.

There is a requirement of extra electrolyte for allowing the losses for the whole life of the battery and this is the feature which comes in the new batteries. The number of refilling of water in the batteries is based on the easiness of detaching the caps in the batteries, the more easy to detach, the more refilling is required.

The process which occurs when there is a water loss is, when there is an overcharging or the battery is charged at a high voltage, the electrolyte breaks into its components, which are hydrogen and oxygen gases. These gases then get discharged from the cells and hence water level gets reduced.

If this water level is too much low due to overcharging or high voltage charging, the plates lose cover of water over them and get exposed to air, hence these plates lose their capacity and due to direct contact from the air, they get damaged as well. There is another component in the batteries which is the sulfuric acid.

There is no replacement needed for this acid because it doesn’t get used up even during overcharging. The water used in batteries must not be filled with impurities or any additives because it causes the battery to slow down its performance and reduce its life. The manufacturers always recommend the batteries with distilled or free of minerals water. The tap water cannot be used even as it also contains a high amount of minerals.

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Charge and discharge

In regular automotive service, the battery’s charging gets used up to power up the electrical system of the vehicle. This charge also gets restored to the battery, when there is engine cranking.

There are a variety of methods which can be used as suit, to install a new battery or recharge some battery which in case, is completely discharged. The most suitable of all of these methods is trickle charging. The other methods which are used charge the battery very slowly or very quickly. Quick charging of the battery leads to its damage.

For measuring the relative currents which is used to charge the battery and for the car loads to power them, a voltage regulator is not used as it does not measure it. The fixed voltage which is given essentially or compulsorily by the charge system is 13.8 to 14.4 V (volt).

This temperature is adjusted to an ambient one if the current limit is not set in the alternator. The high charge range of 20 to 40 A (Ampere) is being drawn by a discharged battery. The charge current of the battery gets down to as low as 2 – 5 A with the charging of the battery.

The charging gets used rapidly due to high load when the systems like ignition, radiator fan, heater blowers, lights and entertainment are being run in the vehicle. In such situation, if there is no enough current provided by the alternator/generator to power up the load, the voltage of the battery gets low because the engine is being run at a low rpm.

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There are some batteries coming with an indicator for the level of battery charged. This is done through a built-in hydrometer. A hydrometer is having a transparent tube with a transparent window. The liquid is with a float immersed can be seen through that window. The gravity of the electrolyte gets increased as the battery gets charged.

This is because the sulfate ions are not combined with the plates in the electrolyte so this lets the colored top of float to be seen from the window. The color indicator helps to identify the electrolyte and battery level as when the float get sunk into water the window gets yellow or black which shows the levels.

There is a drawback of a built-in hydrometer as it only checks one cell and tells its state of charge ignoring all the faults in other cells. This drawback is minimized by a non-sealed battery in which each and every cell’s state of charged can be determined by a hand-held or portable hydrometer.

In case, there is an emergency and the battery is fully discharged, it can be jump started with the help of another vehicle’s battery or with connecting to a portable battery booster.

Another way to charge the battery is by the help of a battery charger. This will help your car charge system which is not enough to charge the battery, to charge it with external help.

There are some specific chargers which are used to properly charge the battery otherwise if a simple charger is used it will force you to slow down the charge current because of the extraordinary gasses get produced in the battery. There come the chargers with a three step charge profile named as an IUoU.

These are safe and store the charge fully in a short span of time. For the lead acid batteries, the chargers named as desulfating chargers are used for any type.

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The electrical system is collection of different subsystems that help you automobile run more smoothly and efficiently. This system is also controlled by excellent device in your automobile, which also takes care of other systems in automobiles, known as engine control unit, or ECU.

An ECU is a device that finds out amount of fuel, ignitions timing, and other factors important for the efficient running of your vehicle.

All this is done by just reading your values from multidimensional performance maps also known as LUTs, by using input values like engine speed premeditated from signals coming from sensor devices scrutinizing the engine.

In past, Air/fuel mixture, ignition timing, and inactive timing were observed and took care by mechanical as well as pneumatic sensors actuators. BMW was the first one to introduce this robotic and computerized machine that has had ability to administer the multiple engine control functions.

They named this device engine control unit or ECU. Famous BMW 80114 cylinder aviation radial engine was managed by only single throttle lever known as Kommandogerat.

ECU is the considered most powerful device in vehicle. Diverse sensors are used to observe and control the different engine functions of the vehicle. It also includes electrical, fuel, and emission control systems. Besides this, ECU also does work of firing the fuel injectors in fuel injected engines, firing the spark plugs, and controlling the valve timing, emission controls, the fuel/air mixture, and cooling the fan.

ECU rarely breaks down and it is ECU that figures out the problems in vehicle and manages the fuel efficiency and performance of vehicle.

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Following are the services involved in individual systems and major parts or electrical system performance:

• It offers early power to start the engine efficiently.

• The ignition system helps to glimmer the plug to cause the furl air and force the engine.

• The charging system of this arrangement produces electrical power for different areas of vehicle that relies on electric current.

• The battery also serves as a store house of current for future requirements.

To control the engine in your vehicle is the most crucial job and ECU serves as powerful device in your automobile. The control system used by ECU is closed-loop control. It is the method that observes outputs of a system in order to take hold of inputs of a system by organizing emissions and fuel economy of the engine.

ECU is such an excellent and intelligent device that it knows every single thing from the temperature of coolant to how much oxygen is there in the exhaust. This information is then used in performing many other important and significant calculations like looking up values in tables, calculating results of equations in order to figure out correct spark timing. All this is done to make sure the less emissions and best mileage.

32-bit and 40 MHz processor is placed in new models of ECU. You may think this 40 MHz processor is fast as compared to your computer’s 500 to 1000 MHz processor but this is also the fact that vehicle needs fast processor as it is operating more efficient code that computer. Memory in an average ECU is less than 1 megabyte. Computers comparatively has 2000 times the amount in ECU i.e. 2 gigabytes.

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Function of an ECU

Control of fuel mixture

ECU determines how much fuel should be used in engine with fuel injection. It considers parameters in determining the quantity of fuel. Let’s consider the throttle pedal. If we press throttle pedal down, throttle body opens up and gives chance to more air to be pulled in engine. Then ECU will then work on adding more fuel depending on air in engine. More fuel will be brought-in in case engine is not humid yet.

Control of ignition timing

Spark is needed in ignition engine to start combustion in burning chamber. ECU has option of regulating the time of spark so that better control and economy is produced. If knock is detected by ECU then ECU will stoppage the spark timing to prevent knock.

Knock is the destructive situation to engine in a way that causes early ignition timing in compression stroke. Using the engine in low RPM range can be another source of knock. Here knock is caused from piston whose speed of moving down is less than flame which is mounting up in front.

This situation usually occurs in manual transmission equipped vehicles. If ECU is having hold of automatic transmission then it would shift the transmission downward.

Control of idle speed

Many vehicle’s engine system is consists of inactive speed control built inside the ECU. The RPM of engine is observed by sensor of crankshaft position which reserves very basic role in engine timing functions for fuel injection, spark events, and valve timing. Programmable strangle end controls the idle speed.

In past, carburetor-based systems used to have programmable strangle end using bidirectional DC cruise. TBI systems used to have an idle air manage stepper motor. Successful idle speed director should expect the engine load as inactive.

In idle load, changes can occur from HVAX systems, power steering systems, power brake systems, and electrical charging and supply systems. Engine load and idle speed can also be varied by engine temperature and transmission status. In order to have hole of idle speed, a throttle control system with most establishment can be used.

Control of variable valve timing

Some engines have feature of variable valve timing. It means that ECU has a control over time in the engine cycle where valves open. Valves open at less time when vehicle is in higher speed that lower speed. This boosts up the flow of air into cylinder causing increase in power and economy.

Electronic valve control

Engines on trial basis are manufactured in past which are also tested. These engines don’t have camshaft but full electronic control to intake and exhaust valve opening and valve closing. Engines like this can be started and run no matter if there is no starter motor located there. These starter motors are for specific multi-cylinder engines prepared from accurately timed electronic ignition and fuel injection.

Engine having full electronic control would increase the efficiency and recue the pollution of gentle hybrid electric drive. This engine was first manufactured in 2002 and was introduced in market in 2009 by Italian automaker Fiat. Multiair engines use electronic valve control that radically shows development in torque and horsepower by dropping fuel consumption to 15%.

The reason behind this fact is that valves are actually opened in hydraulic pumps which are monitored by an ECU. Valves can be opened many times depending on engine load. It is then when ECU takes decision of how much fuel should be injected for optimization of combustion.

For example, suppose you are driving at firm speed, this is the time when valve will be opened and some fuel will be injected and valves then are closed. If suddenly, you get crushed in throttle, then valve will again be opened and more fuel will be brought in so that you start to hurry instantly.

It is then when ECU calculated engine load at RPM and takes decision of how valve should be opened (early, late, wide open, half open). It always reached to most favorable opening and timing and combustion is also very accurate. This entire procedure is not possible in a normal camshaft as it opens valve for whole intake period and to full lift.

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Low voltage can also not be able to give sufficient power for the gears. This is why voltage regulators have been made so that they can maintain the voltage output within the limits that electronic component can feasibly agree to.

Voltage regulators are needed by some electronic devices. Computer is among those devices. The work of voltage regulator is that it passes the voltage in a low voltage flow so that microprocessor is not spoiled.

Some computers may need voltage regulators more than one. Need of voltage regulator depends on the system. Voltage ID programmable is a unique voltage regulator used in some computers. These special voltage regulators interface with microprocessor in order to provide definite voltage level.

In vehicles too, voltage regulators are used to sustain the battery charge. Normally, voltage regulator is considered as a part of alternator of vehicle. But in some old and modern vehicles particularly USA vehicle’s models, voltage regulator itself s separate part.

Strength is produced by alternator or generator which is then supplied to vehicle’s battery to sustain an enough charge. The power that vehicle’s charging system produces is also used to make other electrical systems works. Headlights, radio, power windows and locks, and ventilation systems are included.

Following are some functions of voltage regulators:

1. Voltage generated by alternator of vehicle in order to recharge the battery is controlled by automobile voltage regulator. The regulator enforces the alternator to retain a voltage between 13.5 to 14.5 volts.

This amount of volt is necessary to recharge the battery securely and in addition to it safeguarding the electrical circuits and gears of vehicle. Wiring system, lights, motors are including.

2. The voltage regulator works in relation with other devices to make sure enough power is supplied to vehicle to run electrical gears. Battery and alternator are the devices that work along with regulator.

3. Power is generated by an alternator to charge the battery. Power produced from magnetism to generate electricity is used by alternator. Pulley is turned in alternator hen vehicle’s engine starts running.

The pulley then rotates the rotor around a wire coil with an iron core. Magnetic fields are produced through this procedure and electrical current is then created in coil of wire.

Lipo Voltage Regulator

4. Electric current produced from alternator is known as alternating current. But the battery if a vehicle need direct current. So the alternating current from the alternator is passed all the way through set of diodes to avoid the current flow in other directions.

This is how alternating current if transformed in direct current i.e. now current is insisted to flow in one direction. Now direct current is perfect to use in battery.

5. Energy stored in battery is supplied to other parts of the cars according to their needs and wants. Air condition, the radio, and spark plugs are some examples. To make sure battery is getting accurate quantity of voltage is an important thing to do.

If in any case battery gets the incorrect amount of voltage, the battery can be spoiled or any other electric gear can be spoiled. Voltage regulator maintains the accurate level of voltage.

In new models of vehicles, alternator is resided beneath the alternator and so is not replaceable individually. In many vehicles, alternator is normalized by power control model (PCM). Damaged regulators can be very harmful for cars as it can force alternator to generate voltage more than needed harming the battery, lights and other electric gears.

Other disadvantage of spoiled regulator is that it can become hurdle alternator to generate enough voltage to maintain the charge of battery. The most difficulty is faced while finding out charging problem is to sort out if voltage regulator is actual problem or the alternator. To expose the exact problem, full fielding the alternator procedure is used.

A pulley is located on one side of an alternator or generator. This pulley is turned by one of the belts in engine. The force of the engine is then used to run the alternator and generator.

As the engine’s speed is not constant and keeps on changing with accelerating and shifting gears, need of voltage regulators is necessary to maintain the output generated by an alternator or generator. High voltage output can spoil the electrical systems of vehicles.

High voltage output can be resulted from engine’s higher speed when alternator or generator is not regulated. This can send surge through the system which can overcharge the battery. Where high voltage output is not beneficial for vehicle, low voltage output can also be harmful for vehicle as low voltage output can stop to generate power necessary to charge the battery and run electronic systems. This is increase the load on battery causing less battery life.

If something is going wrong in charging system, then there is a system which can indicate the driver about it. The system can be dash mounted voltmeter, an ammeter, or warning lamp. Warning lamp is marked as Gen, Bat, and Alt. the lamps glows when engine is in motion and problem is occurring in charging system. The cause of the problem can be an alternator which has stopped functioning. Broken alternator drive belt is most general reason.

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A belt drives the alternator. This belt is strengthened by rotation of an engine. The belt moves around the pulley connected to the front of engine’s crankshaft. The belt is also responsible for encouraging movement of other components. Water pump, power steering pump, air condition compressor are some examples. You will find more than one belt in some engines and so the task of encouraging the movement of components is distributed among different belts. Following are the some belts:

• Fan belt
• Alternator belt
• Drive belt
• Power steering belt
• A/C belt

There are many other belts than mentioned above. Serpentine belt is most common and known belt in older engines. This belt is twisted around the front of the engine and drives the components itself.

Voltage regulators need replacement when regulators fail to work properly. One can easily find the voltage regulators for computers and household electronics to electronic dealers. For automobiles, voltage regulators can be found out at dealers or aftermarket parts stores.

Vehicles having voltage regulators not part of alternator but spate part itself can be bought and replaced easily. But for vehicles having voltage regulators resided in alternator; owners of vehicles need to buy either brand new alternator or to rebuild the existing alternator with new voltage regulator.

In an automobile, regulators maintain the voltage in battery when vehicle is functioning at 14.7 volts DC. This is vital step as in new vehicles; computers and circuits are so sensitive that they can easily cook with the increase in voltage. When the vehicle is on running mode, 13.5 volts to 14.7 volts voltage is needed to charge the battery.

There are two types of voltage regulator.

i. Grounded Voltage Regulator: this regulator maintains the quantity of negative ground that goes in rotor.

ii. Grounded Field Voltage Regulator: this type of voltage regulator monitors and limits the quantity of positive ground that later goes in rotor.

Both of these types varies the quantity of direct current made by an alternator which later either boosts or reduces the quantity of current supplied to battery according to need of keeping the current level in safe limits.

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Consider battery as a heart of your car’s electrical system. Without battery system cannot be started.

This permits high current to pass all the way through the battery cables in starter motor. Starter motor next forces the engine to make piston go downward creating suction that will bring the fuel or air mixture in cylinder. When compression in engine is enough and all this procedure happens at approved time, only then engine will start running.

When the key is turned in ignition switch to start; this step forces the circuit to get close and then electrical current flows from car’s battery to starter. In this procedure, current is transmitted through a device known as starter solenoid.

Usually the work of solenoid is to surpass the current and budge the starter gears in association with flywheel. Replacement or adjustment is not required unless it is broken down. it is preferred to take a look of a book about your vehicle’s structure which can inform you about where the electric current is going from where.

To get help from book is nothing you should shy about. The book even tells you how to open a hood. There are some parts in vehicle which can be perplexing at first but once you know details about these parts, you won’t get confused anymore.

There are some parts of vehicle which does not need much attention unless they fail to perform their functions. When they fail to operate, get the hint that now these parts need attention which means parts now need to be replaced by a specialized person. Solenoid is an example of these kinds of parts that do not need much attention unless they fail to perform.

Starting system of a vehicle consists of a battery, starter motor, solenoid, ignition switch, and sometimes starter relay. To prevent the car from starting in a gear mode, inhibitor switch is given.

Ignition key is turned to start position. Current is flowed then and boosts the solenoid coil in starter. The coil is then used as an electromagnet that draws the plunger in coil.

The plunger then closes the set of contact permitting high current to get to the starter motor. In some models, solenoid is located in starter. In this case, plunger is used to push the starter pinion to network with the teeth on flywheel.

Pinion includes an over running (one way) clutch to safeguard from the any type of damage while starting the engine. The rotation of the running engine can increase the rotation of pinion but does not affect the starter motor.

Driver is given indication of letting go the ignition key from start position when engine is started. This ends the flow of current in solenoid or relay. Power flow in starter is also intermittent when plunger is drawn out of contact with battery to starter cable by coil spring. This process fades the magnetic fields and starter stops to rotate.

There are also some anti-theft devices constructed in starting system. Sensors are attached with ignition locks and key side. These sensors spots confirms I correct key is entered or not. If not, then computer system of vehicle won’t permit the vehicle to start.

In a case where someone activates the car alarm to go off, computer here too won’t allow the engine to start. Now as technology is developing, new systems are coming in market. Hence in vehicle too, a service of ON is introduced. With this ON, a person can stop your car by using satellite when you lock keys inside. Now simple operations are not so simple to operate.

Neutral Safety Switch

Neutral safety switch is the knob that unlocks the starter circuit when transmission is in gear but it does not take side of automatic transmission. The switch is usually attached either to the transmission linkage or directly to the transmission. In many vehicles, this switch also serves to provide current to backup lights when transmission is in reverse.

In vehicles with steady transmissions, this switch is attached to the clutch pedal in order to prevent starter from connecting before the clutch pedal is depressed. Get the hint that switch requires adjustment when you are faced with the need to budge the shifter from park or neutral to start the vehicle. The switch also controls and monitors the function of automatic parking brake release.

Starter Relay

Less quantity of electrical current is allowed to control a large quantity of current. The instrument which allow to control is called starter relay. Current of 250 plus amps is used by starter to initiate an engine.

It is not a realistic idea to permit current pass through the ignition switch because then larger switch as well as battery cable size wires would be required which is not very possible.

Starter solenoid in some vehicles is used to allow the less quantity of current from ignition switch to monitor the high current flow from battery to starter.

Battery Cables

To run the starter motor, battery cables are used. These cables are large in width and bear the current of 250 plus volts. Some cables are consisting of small wires joined to the terminal.

These small wires are used to run a smaller tool or to offer extra ground. High resistances in heavy cables are designated by burning of smaller cables. It is preferred to keep an eye on terminals cleanliness and tightness. Battery cables are replaced by somewhat larger cables but not small than original size.

Starter Motor

Along with a pinion, a very prevailing electric motor is attached to the end. This motor is called starter motor. The gear (pinion) is engaged with larger gear i.e. ring when starter motor is triggered.

The engine is then twirled by starter motor in order to force piston is fuel or air blend. It is only then when engine starts to run. A gear known as an overrunning clutch mechanically unfasten then starter fear from engine gear when engine starts to twirl faster than starter.

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There are two standards set for the measurement of the power of the car battery.

These conditions include: the Fahrenheit temperature of zero degrees with the maintenance of at least terminal voltage of about 7.2 volts.

The strength of the battery depends on the number of these volts, the higher the number of these volts the stronger and powerful the battery will be. The old commercials which were displayed with the non-sears batteries were really diehard as they were shown as giving the ghost whether there is cold or snow.

Now we will talk about the other standard which is named as reserve capacity rating. This standard measures the time of a terminal voltage of a battery which is fully charged, to drop as low as 10.2 (or 1.7 volts per cell) in the following condition: a 25 amps continuous discharge rate.

This continuous discharge rating is being expressed in minute measurement. Giving an example for better understanding, a 180 rating doesn’t mean 180 hours, it means 180 minutes or 3 hours is the time duration for which the battery will run before completely stopping its functioning.

There are two cycles which a battery has: charging cycle and the discharging cycle. There is a chemical reaction which happens when a battery gets discharged. The reaction takes place between the lead (Pb) which is on the negative plates and the SO4 of the sulfuric acid.

The product which as a result produces is the lead sulfate (PbSO4). This process of discharging causes this reaction and this reaction causes the electrolyte to get weaker and it lessens the specific gravity. This results in the positive and negative plates to be very similar to each other.

The strength of the voltage or charge is based on both of the plates’ materials and how much the electrolyte is concentrated, the higher the concentration of electrolyte and the difference in the material of the plates, the more powerful the charge will be.

The reaction above reduces the difference between the two plates and so the power of battery gets lost. At this condition of battery, anyone can recognize the battery’s state just by sitting into a car which is not getting started.

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The scenario for the charging cycle is totally reverse of the discharging cycle. When the battery gets charged, the plates get passed by the electrical current which is being produced by the alternator.

When the current passes through the plates, it attracts the SO4 and forces it to come back to the electrolyte bath and hence it concentrates the electrolyte which in result increases the specific gravity. Voltage and charge also increase.

If you want your battery’s life to be long then keep it stored with charge. Never leave it discharged as this will make the life of the battery short. Most of the time it happens that the battery becomes totally unusable if left discharged for many years.

This is because the lead sulfate reaction which takes place during discharging of battery becomes irreversible when you charge the battery after a prolonged time. The monitoring of the stored batteries is very important and it may be done with charging the batteries periodically.

The capacity of the batteries must be retained by attaching them with a float charger. When going to store the batteries, the deposits on the posts must be cleaned and they must be charged. The temperature of the place where the batteries are stored must be cool and dry. Self discharging is done when the batteries are at a hot place. High temperature also leads to battery’s plate corrosion.

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If we talk about a depleted battery, there are a variety of methods used to recharge them. The more safe of all the methods is trickle charging. Some other methods are named as slow-charging and quick-charging. If you want to recharge your battery you need to see the user guide book which came with the battery or if you don’t have it you need to consult the cars mechanic.

If you have a depleted battery and you have manual transmission then it’s the benefit for you that it will start the battery. You just need to have you charging system (alternator and voltage regulator) in a proper working order. Start your car and kick it, then you need to drive it for a long time to charge the battery through the charging system. Driving for a half hour is enough to charge it fully.

When you are going to detach a battery for replacing with a new one then you need to be very careful. For this you must disconnect or detach the connection from the ground.

As it must not be accidently short-circuit between the frame of your vehicle and the battery terminal. A survey held in 1994 by the National Highway Traffic Safety Association showed the results that around 200 people were injured and damaged in the United States when they were working with the automobile batteries.

Now a days, there is a suitable solution comes as electrolyte in the lead acid batteries. This is done at the manufacturing plant and then the batteries are transferred to the retailers for their sale. But this was not the same if we talk about the past. The batteries were filled by the retailers at their places and then get charged.

This was done at the time of purchase of the battery. This process of filling and charging was dangerous by these retailers with no precautionary measures. The acids which are used to fill up the batteries are very much dangerous and can be harmful for eyes, skin and mucous membranes. Now this problem has got reduced. You just have to face it while buying motorcycle or ATV battery.

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